Israeli Nuclear and Biological Weapons Programs

Documentation of Israel's nuclear arsenal and biological weapons research capabilities.

Nuclear Weapons Program

Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, making it the only nuclear-armed state in the Middle East. Israel maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity, neither confirming nor denying possession, while refusing to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Development History

Origins (1950s)

Early decisions: – Israeli leaders determined nuclear capability was essential for survival – David Ben-Gurion authorized secret nuclear program in 1952 – Initial research conducted at Weizmann Institute of Science – Israel Atomic Energy Commission established 1952

French collaboration: – France became Israel's primary nuclear partner (1950s-1960s) – Secret agreement signed 1957 for reactor construction – France provided: – Plutonium-producing reactor design – Reprocessing plant technology – Initial weapons design assistance – Heavy water and uranium – Collaboration driven by shared interests (Suez Crisis alliance, Algerian War) – French assistance continued until De Gaulle ended cooperation (1967)

Dimona Nuclear Facility

Construction: – Built in Negev Desert near town of Dimona – Construction began 1958 with French assistance – Officially described as “textile factory” during construction – US U-2 spy planes discovered facility in 1958

The reactor: – IRR-2 (Israel Research Reactor 2) – Heavy water reactor capable of producing weapons-grade plutonium – Originally rated at 26 megawatts; reportedly upgraded to 70-150 MW – Underground reprocessing facility extracts plutonium from spent fuel

Discovery and deception: – US discovered facility via aerial reconnaissance – Israel initially told US it was a “textile plant” – Later claimed it was for “peaceful purposes” – Ben-Gurion assured President Kennedy it would not produce weapons – US inspectors allowed limited, managed visits (1960s) – Inspectors reportedly shown fake control rooms and limited areas – Full underground facilities concealed from inspectors

Current status: – Still operational – Aging infrastructure has raised safety concerns – No international inspections permitted – Estimated to have produced enough plutonium for 100-200 weapons

Estimated Arsenal

Size estimates vary:

Source Estimate Date
Federation of American Scientists 90 warheads 2023
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 90 warheads 2024
Former President Jimmy Carter 150+ warheads 2008 statement
Arms Control Association 80-400 warheads Range of estimates
Mordechai Vanunu revelations 100-200 warheads 1986 (based on 1985 data)

Delivery systems believed operational: – Jericho III intercontinental ballistic missiles (range: 4,800-11,500 km) – Jericho II medium-range ballistic missiles – F-15I and F-35I aircraft (nuclear-capable) – Dolphin-class submarines (cruise missiles, possibly nuclear-armed) – Fleet of 6 submarines, 3 equipped for nuclear second-strike capability – Submarines provided by Germany (partially subsidized)

Capabilities: – Thermonuclear (hydrogen bomb) capability suspected – Tactical nuclear weapons possible – Second-strike capability via submarine fleet – Estimated enough fissile material for 200+ additional warheads

Mordechai Vanunu Revelations (1986)

The most significant disclosure of Israel's nuclear program came from a former technician.

Background: – Mordechai Vanunu worked at Dimona from 1976-1985 – Became disillusioned with nuclear weapons program – Left Israel with photographs and documentation

The revelations: – Published in British Sunday Times, October 5, 1986 – Provided approximately 60 photographs of Dimona's interior – Revealed underground plutonium reprocessing facility – Described advanced weapons production capabilities – Experts estimated 100-200 warheads based on his information

Key disclosures: – Six-story underground facility (Machon 2) – Lithium-6 production (indicates thermonuclear capability) – Plutonium extraction operations – Weapons component manufacturing – Scale far exceeded “peaceful” program claims

Aftermath: – Vanunu kidnapped by Mossad in Rome before publication – Tried in secret for treason and espionage – Sentenced to 18 years (served 11+ in solitary confinement) – Released 2004; remains under severe restrictions – Cannot leave Israel or speak to foreign media without permission – (See Kidnappings section for full details)

The Vela Incident (1979)

A suspected Israeli nuclear test in the South Atlantic.

The detection: – September 22, 1979 – US Vela satellite detected characteristic “double flash” – Double flash signature consistent with nuclear explosion – Location: South Atlantic/Indian Ocean, near Prince Edward Islands

Investigation: – Carter administration convened scientific panel – Panel officially concluded detection was “probably not” a nuclear explosion – Suggested possible meteorite or satellite malfunction – Conclusion widely disputed by scientists and intelligence officials

Evidence pointing to Israeli test: – Israeli naval activity in the area – South African naval presence (Israel-South Africa nuclear cooperation documented) – Atmospheric sampling detected radioactive particles – Hydroacoustic data consistent with nuclear test – Multiple US intelligence agencies concluded it was likely a nuclear test

Israel-South Africa cooperation: – Documented military relationship during apartheid era – Joint development programs alleged – South Africa later acknowledged its own nuclear program (dismantled 1989) – Israeli involvement in South African program widely reported

Significance: – Would represent only Israeli nuclear test – Demonstrated advanced weapons capability – US government suppressed findings to avoid diplomatic crisis – Remains officially “unconfirmed”

Policy of Opacity (Amimut)

Israel's official position on nuclear weapons.

The doctrine: – Israel “will not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons to the Middle East” – This formulation avoids confirming or denying possession – Policy established by Prime Minister Levi Eshkol (1960s) – Maintained by all subsequent governments

Purpose: – Avoids triggering arms race (in theory) – Prevents obligation to sign NPT – Maintains strategic ambiguity – Allows US to avoid legally mandated sanctions

US complicity: – 1969: Nixon-Meir understanding – Secret agreement between Nixon and Golda Meir – US would accept Israeli nuclear capability – Israel would not declare or test openly – US would not pressure Israel on NPT – Agreement remained secret until declassified documents revealed it – Subsequent administrations have maintained this understanding

The Samson Option

Israel's alleged nuclear doctrine of last resort.

The concept: – Named after biblical figure Samson, who destroyed a temple killing himself and enemies – Doctrine of massive nuclear retaliation if Israel faces destruction – Targets would include not just attacking nations but potentially others – Intended as ultimate deterrent against existential threats

Sources: – Term popularized by journalist Seymour Hersh in 1991 book “The Samson Option” – Israeli military historian Martin van Creveld stated: “We possess several hundred atomic warheads and rockets and can launch them at targets in all directions, perhaps even at Rome. Most European capitals are targets for our air force.” – Statements by Israeli officials have alluded to massive retaliation capability

Debate: – Some analysts view as actual doctrine – Others consider it rhetorical deterrent – True Israeli nuclear doctrine remains classified

Non-Proliferation Treaty Status

Israel's position: – One of only four nations never to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) – Others: India, Pakistan, South Sudan – North Korea signed but withdrew (2003) – Israel has refused all calls to join NPT or accept comprehensive safeguards

Arguments Israel presents: – Regional security concerns – Existential threats from neighbors – NPT would require disclosure and dismantlement – Other regional states (Iran) pursued nuclear programs

International pressure: – Arab states have consistently called for nuclear-free Middle East – IAEA General Conference repeatedly calls on Israel to join NPT – 2010: NPT Review Conference called for conference on Middle East WMD-free zone – Israel refused to participate – US has blocked most international pressure

International Concerns

IAEA: – Cannot inspect Israeli nuclear facilities – Has repeatedly called for Israel to join NPT – No safeguards agreement covering Dimona

Regional impact: – Israeli nuclear monopoly cited by other states pursuing programs – Iran's program partly justified as response to Israeli capability – Iraq under Saddam Hussein pursued nuclear weapons – Libya pursued nuclear weapons – Syria's alleged reactor (destroyed by Israel 2007)

Arms control implications: – Undermines non-proliferation regime – Double standard in international enforcement – US sanctions other nations while ignoring Israeli program – Sets precedent that proliferation succeeds if unacknowledged

German Submarine Transfers

Germany has provided Israel with submarines believed capable of launching nuclear weapons.

The program: – Dolphin-class submarines built by ThyssenKrupp – Germany has subsidized approximately one-third of costs – First submarines delivered in 1990s – Current fleet: 6 submarines (as of 2024)

Nuclear capability: – Submarines can launch cruise missiles – Modified to carry nuclear-armed missiles (widely reported) – Provides second-strike capability – Israeli officials have made statements suggesting nuclear role

Controversies: – Germany effectively subsidizing nuclear delivery systems – Corruption allegations in procurement (Netanyahu associates investigated) – Moral questions given Germany's historical responsibility

Key Events Timeline

Year Event
1952 Israel Atomic Energy Commission established
1957 Secret agreement with France for reactor
1958 Dimona construction begins
1960 US discovers facility via U-2 flights
1963 Dimona reactor goes critical
1966 First nuclear weapon believed assembled
1967 Nuclear weapons reportedly available during Six-Day War
1969 Nixon-Meir secret understanding
1973 Nuclear weapons allegedly readied during Yom Kippur War
1979 Vela Incident (suspected test)
1986 Vanunu revelations published
1991 Gulf War – Israel targeted by Iraqi Scuds; nuclear response reportedly considered
2000s Submarine-based second-strike capability established
2007 Israel destroys Syrian reactor (Operation Orchard)
2010 Stuxnet attack on Iran's nuclear program
2020 Assassination of Iranian nuclear scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh

Biological Weapons Program

Israel is believed to maintain biological weapons research capabilities centered at the Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR) in Ness Ziona. Israel has never signed the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), remaining one of only a handful of countries outside the treaty. The government maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity regarding biological and chemical weapons capabilities.

Development History

Origins: HEMED BEIT (1948)

Establishment: – In late 1947, biochemist Ephraim Katzir (future Israeli president, 1973-1978) sought biological weapons capability – Katzir reportedly told Columbia University biochemist David Rittenberg: “I need germs and poisons for the war of independence” – Chaim Weizmann initially dismissed the request, calling Katzir a “savage,” but later relented – February 1948: Haganah chief operations officer Yigael Yadin dispatched Alexander Keynan to establish HEMED BEIT – Katzir and Keynan “planned various activities, to get a sense what chemical and biological weapons are and how we could build a potential should there be a need”

Sources: – Cohen, Avner. Middle Eastern Studies, 2001 – Times of Israel – “Should there be a need” – Benny Morris – Biological Warfare in the 1948 War

Operation Cast Thy Bread (1948)

A top-secret biological warfare campaign during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, using typhoid bacteria to contaminate water supplies.

Authorization: – Approved by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion – Overseen by IDF Chief of General Staff Yigael Yadin – Conducted in violation of the 1925 Geneva Protocol

Objectives: – Prevent Palestinian Arabs from returning to captured villages – Create difficult conditions for Arab armies

Known operations:

Location Date Details
Acre May 1948 Typhoid bacteria introduced to water wells; epidemic reported
Jaffa April 1948 Attempted water contamination
Eilabun (Galilee) 1948 Wells poisoned
Gaza 1948 Two Jewish soldiers captured attempting to poison water supply to halt Egyptian army advance; sentenced to death by Egyptian military court

The Acre Outbreak: – Typhoid epidemic triggered “state of extreme distress” among inhabitants (May 1948) – Emergency conference held at Lebanese Red Cross Hospital (6 May 1948) – Attended by Brigadier Beveridge (British Chief Medical Services), Colonel Bonnet, Dr. Maclean, ICRC delegate – At least 70 known civilian casualties – British investigation determined infection was “water borne,” rejecting Israeli claims of unhygienic conditions – ICRC reports from 6-19 May 1948 documented the epidemic

Planned expansions (not carried out): – Government ordered expansion into Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria in final months of war – Plans were not executed

Israeli response: – Israel “vehemently denied” accusations – Abba Eban (Jewish Agency representative) sought to block investigations, accusing Arab states of “antisemitic incitement”

Sources: – Cohen, Avner and Ofer Aderet. ”'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War.” Middle Eastern Studies 59, no. 5 (2023) – Haaretz – Documents Confirm Israelis Poisoned Arab Wells in 1948 – Middle East Monitor – Historians reveal Israel's use of poison against Palestinians – British and ICRC archival documents

Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR)

The primary facility for Israel's biological and chemical weapons research.

Basic information: – Location: Ness Ziona, approximately 20 km south of Tel Aviv – Established: 1952 (evolved from HEMED BEIT) – Reports to: Prime Minister's Office (similar to Dimona nuclear facility) – Staff: Approximately 350 employees, including 150 scientists – Security: Operates under “a veil of great secrecy”

Suspected activities: – “Offensive and defensive research” in biological and chemical domains – Expert assessments indicate Israel “acquired expertise in most aspects of weaponization” – Development of vaccines and antidotes for biological/chemical weapons – Poisons for intelligence operations

Declared research and products: – Polio vaccine (1959) – Explosive detection kits (1980) – Drug for Sjögren syndrome (1984) – National laboratories for detecting chemical and biological threats (since 1995)

Satellite imagery: – Declassified 1971 CORONA satellite imagery revealed “a possible special weapons related facility” – Approximately a dozen buildings with security perimeters and vegetation screening

Sources: – GlobalSecurity – Ness Ziona – Carnegie Endowment – Chemical and Biological Weapons in the Middle East – NTI – Israel Biological

The Marcus Klingberg Spy Case

The most damaging espionage case in IIBR history.

Background: – Marcus Klingberg was a founding member of IIBR (1952) – Appointed Deputy Scientific Director in 1957 – Held position until 1972

Espionage activities: – Passed information on Israel's chemical and biological weapons research to the Soviet Union – Used Russian Orthodox Church in Abu Kabir as contact point with KGB – Actively spied from 1957 to approximately 1976 – Awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour (USSR's second-highest honor) in the 1950s

Discovery and prosecution: – Came under suspicion by counter-intelligence but not discovered until 1983 (seven years after retirement) – Arrested and convicted of espionage in secret – Sentenced to 20 years in prison – Held in solitary confinement for first decade

Assessment: – Described as “the highest-ranking Soviet spy caught in Israel” – Israeli intelligence viewed him as “the spy who caused the most damage to Israel's national security interests” – Described as “perhaps the most damaging spy in Israel's history”

Sources: – Washington Post – Marcus Klingberg obituary – Times of Israel – Notorious spy Marcus Klingberg dies – Medium – Russia's Most Successful Biological Spy – +972 Magazine – A Soviet spy and an Israeli patriot

El Al Flight 1862 Revelations (1992)

The crash of a cargo aircraft revealed details about shipments to IIBR.

The crash: – October 4, 1992: El Al Flight 1862 (Boeing 747 cargo aircraft) crashed in Bijlmermeer neighborhood, Amsterdam – 47 people killed (4 crew, 43 on ground)

Chemical cargo revealed: – 1998: El Al spokesman Nachman Klieman publicly revealed cargo contents – Shipment included: – 190 liters (10 drums of 18.9L each) dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) – Isopropanol – Hydrogen fluoride – DMMP is a CWC Schedule 2 chemical and precursor for Sarin and Soman nerve gases – Cargo originated from a US chemical plant – Shipped under US Department of Commerce license – Destination: Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona

Israeli explanation: – Chemical was listed on cargo manifest per international regulations – Material was “nontoxic” – Intended use: testing filters of chemical weapon detectors

Aftermath: – Dutch foreign ministry confirmed prior knowledge of chemicals on aircraft – Investigation revealed connection between IIBR and nerve agent precursors

Sources: – NRC Handelsblad investigation (original Dutch investigation) – Admiral Cloudberg – Concrete and Fire: The crash of El Al flight 1862 – Simple Flying – El Al Flight 1862

Biological/Chemical Assassination Operations

IIBR has been linked to development of poisons used in Mossad assassination operations.

Wadie Haddad (1978)

Sources: – Klein, Aaron J. Striking Back (2006) – Bergman, Ronen. Rise and Kill First (2018) – Times of Israel – Mossad chose not to nab Mengele

Khaled Mashal Assassination Attempt (1997)

What went wrong: – Mashal's bodyguards noticed suspicious behavior – Agents chased down and captured – Jordan's King Hussein demanded antidote – US President Bill Clinton intervened, compelling Netanyahu to provide antidote – Mossad director Danny Yatom flew to Jordan with antidote

Consequences: – Mashal survived – Israel forced to release Hamas founder Sheikh Ahmed Yassin and other prisoners – Major diplomatic crisis with Jordan – Operation exposed IIBR's role in developing assassination poisons

Sources: – Times of Israel – Begging royal mercy: How Israel recovered from the botched Mashaal hit – Time Magazine – Khaled Mashaal: Hamas Leader Hunted by Netanyahu – Middle East Monitor – Remembering Israel's botched attempt to assassinate Khaled Meshaal – Haaretz – 1997 poisoning of Hamas leader wasn't start of Israel's bio warfare

Chemical Weapons Program

Development: – Israel developed chemical weapons capabilities following Egypt's use of chemical weapons in the Yemen civil war (1963) and against Israeli targets before the 1967 Six-Day War – 1982: CIA satellites identified “a probable CW nerve agent production facility” at Dimona's Sensitive Storage Area in the Negev Desert

Expert assessments: – Defense Intelligence Agency study (1990): Confirmed Israel maintained “an operational chemical warfare testing facility” – Expert consensus: Israel “developed, produced, stockpiled, and maybe even deployed chemical weapons” – Jaffe Center's Middle East Military Balance: “Chemical and biological capabilities of Syria, Iraq and Iran are matched” by Israel's “possession of a wide range of such weapons”

Sources: – Carnegie Endowment – Chemical and Biological Weapons in the Middle East – Arms Control Association – Chemical and Biological Weapons Status

International Treaty Status

Treaty Israel's Status Notes
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) Never signed One of only ~10 countries outside the treaty
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) Signed (1993), not ratified Cannot be inspected by OPCW
1925 Geneva Protocol Signed (1969) Bans use of chemical and “bacteriological methods of warfare”

Israeli justification: – Claims biological weapons disarmament requires regional negotiations for a WMD-free zone – Argues joining BWC could broaden pressure to relinquish nuclear arsenal – Links all WMD treaties to comprehensive regional framework

Sources: – Arms Control Association – BWC Signatories and States-Parties – Arms Control Association – The BWC At A Glance – MirYam Institute – Israel and the BWC

Key Timeline

Year Event
1948 HEMED BEIT established; Operation Cast Thy Bread conducted
1952 Israel Institute for Biological Research founded at Ness Ziona
1957 Marcus Klingberg appointed IIBR Deputy Scientific Director
1963 Chemical weapons development accelerated after Egyptian CW use in Yemen
1969 Israel signs 1925 Geneva Protocol
1978 Wadie Haddad assassinated with IIBR-developed poison
1982 CIA identifies probable CW production facility at Dimona
1983 Marcus Klingberg arrested for espionage
1992 El Al Flight 1862 crash reveals nerve agent precursor shipments to IIBR
1993 Israel signs Chemical Weapons Convention (does not ratify)
1997 Khaled Mashal assassination attempt with levofentanyl
2022 Academic paper confirms 1948 biological warfare operations